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Ethnographic Methods in Nonprofit Management

Flinn, J. — Fri, 13 Nov 2009 10:57:23 PST

As undergraduate programs in nonprofit management education proliferate, they increasingly incorporate service learning, experiential learning, and an emphasis on inclusiveness and diversity. To effectively face these challenges, such programs would do well to look to cultural anthropology, especially the methods of ethnographic research. Cultural anthropology has far more to offer than a list of behavioral traits about obscure peoples in the world: It offers a methodology for how to learn through experiences, a number of strategies to promote inclusiveness, and a framework that promotes an openness to having one’s assumptions challenged. This article provides an analysis of the use and value of ethnographic methods while working for Big Brothers Big Sisters in rural Alaska, f ollowed by recommendations for incorporating anthropological methods and concepts into nonprofit management education.

Institutionalization, Privatization, and Political Opportunity: What Tactical Choices Reveal About the Policy Advocacy of Human Service Nonprofits

Mosley, J. E. — Tue, 22 Sep 2009 08:57:55 PDT

Although awareness of the involvement of human service nonprofits (HSNPs) in policy advocacy has grown, scholars continue to know little about how they actually carry out their advocacy work. This study uses a large, representative survey of HSNPs to answer two primary research questions: First, what kinds of advocacy tactics do HSNPs participate in most frequently? Second, does reliance on government funding and greater institutionalization, both pervasive trends among HSNPs, affect the choices they make when it comes to the tactics they engage in? Findings indicate that HSNPs are involved in a wide range of advocacy tactics, but that together the field-level trends of institutionalization and privatization may be increasing political opportunity for HSNPs, leading to tactical choices similar to those of interest groups. Increased institutionalization and dependence on government funding are associated with using a wider variety of tactics overall and increased use of insider tactics in particular.

A Model of Determinant Attributes of Corporate Image in Cultural Services

Tubillejas, B., Frasquet, M., Cuadrado, M. — Tue, 22 Sep 2009 08:57:55 PDT

The study of corporate image, within the strategic approach of marketing, focuses on evaluating the attributes that determine it. After reviewing the relevant literature, the present article proposes a corporate image model delimited by functional attributes that is adapted to the cultural services sector. Our objective is to evaluate the importance of these attributes or factors, so the authors develop an empirical exploratory investigation as a first phase of our study. The personal survey, by means of a structured questionnaire, was the technique employed for collecting the information that was analyzed by multiple regression analysis. The first results show that "physical environment" and "access to services" are the attributes with the strongest influence on the corporate image of cultural service organizations.

A Cross-Cultural Examination of Student Volunteering: Is It All About Resume Building?

Handy, F., Hustinx, L., Cnaan, R. A., Kang, C. — Thu, 03 Sep 2009 14:05:26 PDT

This research adopts the utilitarian view of volunteering as a starting point: we posit that for an undergraduate student population volunteering is motivated by career enhancing and job prospects.We hypothesize that in those countries where volunteering signals positive characteristics of students and helps advance their careers, their volunteer participation will be higher. Furthermore, regardless of the signaling value of volunteering, those students who volunteer for utilitarian reasons will be more likely to volunteer but will exhibit less time-intensive volunteering. Using survey data from 12 countries (n =9,482), we examine our hypotheses related to motivations to volunteer, volunteer participation, and country differences. Findings suggest that students motivated to volunteer for building their résumés do not volunteer more than students with other motives. However, in countries with a positive signaling value of volunteering,volunteering rates are significantly higher.As expected, students motivated by résumé building motivations have a lower intensity of volunteering.

Giving Miss Marple a Makeover: Graduate Recruitment, Systems Failure and the Scottish Voluntary Sector

Hurrell, S. A., Warhurst, C., Nickson, D. — Tue, 01 Sep 2009 15:07:42 PDT

The voluntary sector in Scotland, as in many other countries, is becoming increasingly business like. Resultantly, there is an increasing demand for graduates to work in business and support functions. In Scotland, however, despite an oversupply of graduates in the labor market, the voluntary sector reports skills shortages for graduate-level positions. Through exploratory, mainly qualitative research, this article demonstrates that one reason for this mismatch between the supply of and demand for graduates is a systems failure within the sector. Many graduates and university students remain unaware of potentially suitable paid job opportunities, in part because of the sector’s voluntary label.To rectify this systems failure, thought needs to be given to the sector’s nomenclature and the manner in which voluntary sector organizations attract graduate recruits, for example, through levering value congruence in potential recruits.

Internet Disclosure by Nonprofit Organizations: Empirical Evidence of Nongovernmental Organizations for Development in Spain

Gandia, J. L. — Fri, 21 Aug 2009 16:43:25 PDT

This article examines the relevance of technology, and particularly the Internet, for the improvement of accountability and transparency in nonprofit organizations.The novelty of our work regarding the previous empirical evidence resides in the fact that we have taken into account the means through which these organizations diffuse voluntary information.Inthis article,wehave proposedamodelofinformation disclosureforthe Web sites of Spanish nongovernmental organizations for development (NGODs) that can serve as a guide for improving their informative transparency and their accountability. The empirical evidence obtained reveals that Spanish NGOD Web sites are primarily ornamental and that they should evolve toward an environment more informational and relational that allows the stakeholders to access relevant information ranging from the work being done and the use of the dispersed funds to the form in which the organization is governed. Our results have also confirmed that the disclosure levels are related to the amount of future donations received by the organization.

Historical Milestones in the Emergence of Nonprofit Public Relations in the United States, 1900-1956

Lee, M. — Fri, 21 Aug 2009 16:43:24 PDT

Public relations has gradually emerged as one element of American nonprofit management and pedagogy, albeit a second tier subject.This is an historical inquiry into the emergence of nonprofit public relations in the United States, both as a practitioner activity and a curricular subject. One of the earliest nonprofits to use public relations formally was Harvard in 1900.An early milestone was the spread of public relations from individual nonprofits to a nonprofit subsector, such as a paper at a national social service conference in 1909.Then public relations gradually spread to other subsectors, eventually evolving into somewhat of a generic sectorwide management activity. However, the failure to create a professional organization of nonprofit public relations practitioners in the late 1930s and the uncertain marketing of an arguably generic textbook in 1956 may have reflected the continuing uncertainty,if public relations was a common and similar activity throughout the U.S. nonprofit sector.

Staff Perceptions of Variables Affecting Performance in Human Service Organizations

Packard, T. — Wed, 12 Aug 2009 15:48:53 PDT

This article summarizes results of a study of programs providing workforce and educational development services for high-risk youth. A model of management functioning and program performance is used as a structure for program staff to rate the relative importance of selected inputs (clients, staff, resources, etc.) and throughputs (management and service delivery processes, framed here as management and program capacity) as they affect results. Factors seen to be most important in affecting performance included adequate funding for the program, leaders having a positive attitude, staff being motivated and committed, a facilitative organizational structure, and a budgeting process which ensures effective resource allocation. Because performance measurement is seen as multidimensional and socially constructed, findings also include respondents’ opinions on the most relevant measures of performance.These results can provide insights and guidance to researchers and agency managers regarding studying and improving organizational performance.

The Sarbanes-Oxley Act: More Bark Than Bite for Nonprofits

Nezhina, T. G., Brudney, J. L. — Wed, 12 Aug 2009 15:48:52 PDT

Based on a survey of a representative sample of nonprofit organizations, this article explores the impact of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act (SOX) on the nonprofit sector. The study addresses two questions: What is the level of SOX adoption by nonprofit organizations? and How do we explain variations in the adoption level of SOX? Using Poisson regression models, our study finds that the level of SOX adoption in nonprofit organizations is determined to a large extent by nonprofit organizations’ accountability and transparency structure prior to SOX. When this factor is taken into account, contrary to previous studies, the level of SOX adoption by nonprofits is modest. In addition to the existing accountability structure, important variables in the statistical explanation of SOX adoption include CEOs’ familiarity with SOX, attitudes of nonprofit CEOs toward SOX, and organization size.

Incorporated but Not IRS-Registered: Exploring the (Dark) Grey Fringes of the Nonprofit Universe

Gronbjerg, K. A., Liu, H. K., Pollak, T. H. — Mon, 10 Aug 2009 10:30:07 PDT

Listings of Internal Revenue Service (IRS)-registered and state-incorporated nonprofits for the same region may differ for a variety of reasons. Using Indiana as a case study, we first describe the distribution of nonprofits across these two listings. We then present findings from a small telephone survey of incorporated nonprofits that are not registered with the IRS for Indiana to explore whether they are excluded from the IRS-listing for statutory, technical, or compliance reasons. We consider several aspects of state incorporation status: date of incorporation and whether active status has been maintained or not. We conclude that researchers need to pay careful attention to the limitations of the IRS registration system when wishing to examine the dimensions of the nonprofit sector at local, state, or regional levels. Our finding, that some nonprofits fail to maintain active incorporation status, points to significant problems of nonprofit capacity.

A Cross-Sector Comparison of Motivation-Related Concepts in For-Profit and Not-For-Profit Service Organizations

De Cooman, R., De Gieter, S., Pepermans, R., Jegers, M. — Fri, 07 Aug 2009 10:46:00 PDT

This contribution examines differences in four motivation-related concepts between employees in not-for-profit and for-profit sector service organizations. Using regression analyses, 630 knowledge workers, employed in either the not-for-profit or the for-profit sector,were compared.The majority of the hypotheses were supported by the data. Even after the impact of gender, age, seniority, contract type, and task characteristics were controlled for,employees from both sectors differed significantly. Not-for-profit workers valued more social service, perceived a better person– organization fit, and were more motivated by identified and integrated regulation. Their for-profit counterparts valued more advancement and were more motivated by external regulation.These conclusions account for a broad range of activities within the service industry because a wide variety of organizations were included in the study.

Top Management Team Diversity and Performance of Christian Churches

Perkins, D. C., Fields, D. — Fri, 31 Jul 2009 12:48:06 PDT

This study investigates the relationship of top management team (TMT) diversity with performance of Christian churches, a particular type of nonprofit and voluntary organization. Performance measures were based on applying the balanced scorecard to the church setting. Within a sample of 82 churches from a single denomination, the authors found that greater diversity in the spiritual maturity and relationships of TMT members with the senior pastor was positively related with growth in church attendance. TMT diversity in age was positively related with Sunday school attendance. Surprisingly, diversity in TMT attitudes and tenure were positively related with efficiency of internal processes. greater diversity in tenure in the TMT was negatively related with growth in church revenues. The findings suggest that diversity in the church TMT’s may pay off in organizational growth, increased constituent learning, and better operating efficiency, but it may have negative impacts on growth in revenues. The findings related to efficiency suggest that TMT diversity may have different effects within nonprofit settings than it does within commercial business organizations.

Accountability Online: Understanding the Web-Based Accountability Practices of Nonprofit Organizations

Saxton, G. D., Guo, C. — Thu, 23 Jul 2009 11:59:36 PDT

Nonprofit organizations are increasingly using Internet-based technologies to address accountability. This article presents a set of conceptual, theoretical, and empirical innovations to help understand this phenomenon. First, this article presents a conceptual framework that delineates two key dimensions of Web-based accountability practices: disclosure and dialogue. It then posits a four-factor explanatory model of online accountability incorporating organizational strategy, capacity, governance, and environment. Last, it tests the model through a content analysis of 117 U.S. community foundation Web sites combined with survey and financial data. The descriptive statistics show that the Web site has been more effectively used to provide financial and performance disclosures than to provide dialogic mechanisms for stakeholder input and interactive engagement. Our multivariate analyses, in turn, highlight capacity- and governance-related variables, especially asset size and board performance, as the most significant factors associated with the adoption of Web-based accountability practices.

Moral Resources and Political Capital: Theorizing the Relationship Between Voluntary Service Organizations and the Development of Civil Society in China

Xu, Y., Ngai, N.-P. — Thu, 23 Jul 2009 11:59:35 PDT

How can voluntary service organizations (VSOs) emerge and survive in a relatively conservative social and political environment? How can such organizations contribute to the development of civil society in contemporary China? To answer these questions, this study applies the qualitative approach and a triangulation of methods to a case study of the city of Jinan. The findings indicate that self-chosen moral resource I, socially recognized moral resource II, ascribed political capital I, and self-achieved political capital II are the key elements that have an impact on the development of civil society in China. Moral resource I is crucial to the success of VSOs in promoting civil society, whereas moral resource II, political capital I, and political capital II may help them to gain the government’s trust, thus facilitating their survival and growth in a relatively conservative social and political environment.

The Whole Story of NGO Mandate Change: The Peacebuilding Work of World Vision, Catholic Relief Services, and Mennonite Central Committee

Gerstbauer, L. C. — Tue, 07 Jul 2009 13:42:46 PDT

Relief and development NGOs have been recognized for their role in peacebuilding in conflicts. The literature tends to focus on external forces, such as the changing nature of conflict and state funding, as an impetus for these NGOs to adopt peacebuilding mandates. However, this is not the complete story of mandate change. Typical explanations and theories used to explain the adoption of peacebuilding underemphasize the autonomy of NGOs and internal factors leading to mandate change. The cases of World Vision, Catholic Relief Services, and Mennonite Central Committee are used to reveal the overlooked factors contributing to adoption of peacebuilding mandates, including agency leadership and the importance of the compatibility of peacebuilding with the NGOs’ primary missions as faith-based relief and development NGOs. Why NGOs engage in peacebuilding is an important question given the critiques they have received over their competency for the task.

Persuasion in Fundraising Letters: An Interdisciplinary Study

Goering, E., Connor, U. M., Nagelhout, E., Steinberg, R. — Tue, 07 Jul 2009 13:42:47 PDT

In this article, we report experimental evidence on the effectiveness of several techniques of persuasion commonly utilized in direct-mail solicitation. The study is built on theory-based, descriptive models of fundraising discourse and on comparisons of recommended and actual practices related to three dimensions of persuasion: rhetorical, visual, and linguistic. The specific rhetorical variable included is persuasive appeal (rational, credibility, or affective). The visual variable selected for the study is the presence or absence of bulleted lists, and the linguistic variable included is readability or the complexity of exposition. Participants were presented with pairs of fictive direct-mail appeals from imaginary universities that differ in these dimensions and asked to allocate a hypothetical US$100 across each pair. Results suggest that letters utilizing credibility appeals and letters written at a high level of readability produce the highest donations.

Helping Them Live Until They die: Volunteer Practices in Palliative Home Care

Sevigny, A., Dumont, S., Cohen, S. R., Frappier, A. — Wed, 01 Jul 2009 10:36:15 PDT

Volunteers traditionally play an essential role in palliative care. Without them, many community and institutional programs would not survive. Despite the significant number of volunteers involved in palliative care, the nature and scope of their actions remain ambiguous. The blurred boundaries of their contribution create tensions between professionals, families, and volunteers with regards to patient care and sharing of responsibilities. This article reports on a comprehensive and descriptive qualitative study aimed at understanding volunteer practices in home palliative care in Canada through analysis of volunteers’ discourse. The conceptual framework not only allows for a description of volunteer practices but also for an understanding of those practices in terms of the meaning volunteers ascribe to their actions and interactions. The information gathered provides a better understanding of the place of volunteers within the palliative care system, thereby allowing communities to optimize their contribution to the palliative care mission.

Moving Governance Research Forward: A Contingency-Based Framework and Data Application

Ostrower, F., Stone, M. M. — Fri, 26 Jun 2009 13:53:28 PDT

The purpose of this article is to present an initial framework for understanding nonprofit board governance and then, using findings from the Urban Institute National Survey of Nonprofit Governance, explore relationships between variables presented in the framework. The framework is based on a recent review of the literature and highlights the ways in which internal organizational characteristics, board attributes, and the external environment influence board roles and responsibilities. In brief, our results confirm the importance of developing a more systematic body of knowledge about relationships between specific elements of context and board practices. The results suggest that the proposed contingency-based framework is a useful beginning point for future research.

A Comparison of Volunteering Data in the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and the Current Population Survey

Nesbit, R. — Wed, 24 Jun 2009 09:05:06 PDT

This article compares the volunteering data in the Center on Philanthropy’s Philanthropy Module of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, generally referred to as Center on Philanthropy Panel Study (COPPS), and the September volunteering supplement of the Current Population Survey (CPS). In comparing survey methodologies, the author focuses on sample type and size, data collection procedures, response rates, and survey content. He also presents volunteering estimates from both datasets including an investigation of the uses of memory prompts and proxy responses for volunteering data. Both the COPPS and CPS volunteering data are high-quality datasets and each has relative advantages over the other. The COPPS data allow for longitudinal analysis and contain measures of charitable giving and religiosity; the CPS data’s larger sample size allows for state-level estimates and subgroup analyses. In both datasets, proxy responses generally underreport volunteering. Memory prompts in the volunteering surveys capture small amounts of additional volunteering by White, married, middle-aged women with larger households.

The Emerging Role of Nonprofit Associations in Advocacy and Public Policy: Trends, Issues, and Prospects

Balassiano, K., Chandler, S. M. — Mon, 22 Jun 2009 17:02:22 PDT

The purpose of this article is to review the emerging role and development of state and national associations of nonprofit organizations. The question this article explores is, "Do these associations increase the role of nonprofits in advocacy and participation in community decision making, and if so, to what degree do they help the sector exert influence in the public policy arena?" Many nonprofit organizations in america are now joining state and national associations that specifically focus on building organizational capacity and training in policy advocacy. During the past decade, these associations have grown not only in number but also in strength, and now provide platforms for their members to collectively influence public policies at the local, state, and national levels. This article examines the roles and levels of advocacy and public policy by the National association of Nonprofit Organizations (NCNa) and a few statewide nonprofit associations ranked by NCNa as "high performers."

Community Service Among A Panel of Beginning College Students: Its Prevalence and Relationship to Having Been Required and to Supporting "Capital"

Griffith, J. — Thu, 18 Jun 2009 08:43:45 PDT

To meet several information needs in the study of community service, survey data gathered from a nationally representative sample of first-time beginning college students (approximately 9,500), first as freshmen and later as juniors, were analyzed. About half (48%-50%) of the students at both points in time performed community service, of which about one tenth (8%-9%) was required by the student’s college program. Having done community service in 2004, whether required or not, showed a statistically reliable relationship to having done community service in 2006. Results suggest that not all types of community service draw on the same "capital" or resources, offering possible directions for future methods to promote general and specific types of community service.

Strategic Group Analysis of Poland's Nonprofit Organizations

Domanski, J. — Wed, 17 Jun 2009 10:33:27 PDT

This article reviews empirically studied strategic groups of nonprofit organizations that operate in the area of education and culture in Poland. The study was based on a sample of 485 organizations that were tested according to the hierarchical and the two-step cluster methods. This generated five largely diverse strategic groups in the sector, and each group is thoroughly described in the article.

Are Private Government, the Nonprofit Sector, and Civil Society the Same Thing?

Mendel, S. C. — Fri, 12 Jun 2009 12:59:16 PDT

This article argues that the concept of private government contributes to an elegant framework for understanding the public and private nature of American civil society. Private government has two distinct elements comprised of the interests of businesses and nonprofit organizations that exercise power to interact with government to achieve their specific goals and objectives. This new, yet familiar, lens on which to consider the role of the nonprofit sector in the United States and the manner in which it interacts with government policy makers and business decision makers adds clarity to the muddle of terminology scholars have assembled to classify and characterize one of American society’s most distinguishing features. The article will be of interest to domestic and international scholars seeking yet another tool to compare nongovernmental organizations and the particular character of civil society in countries that do not have the same political traditions as the United States.

The Financing and Programming of Advocacy in Complex Nonprofit Structures

Kerlin, J. A., Reid, E. J. — Thu, 11 Jun 2009 12:13:52 PDT

This article examines nonprofit environmental groups to demonstrate the impact of Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and Federal Election Commission (FEC) regulation on nonprofit organizations interested in advocacy work. This regulation encourages non-profits interested in extended advocacy to form additional, related tax-exempt entities, creating complex nonprofit structures. Although regulatory barriers to charitable lobbying have received some attention, little has been written on how regulatory policy shapes the organizational structures, finances, and programming of nonprofits involved in advocacy. This study analyzes the complex structures of five environmental nonprofit groups using information they file with the IRS and FEC and interviews with key officers and representatives. It finds that even with strict regulatory compliance, financial and programmatic relationships across these complex structures can vary creating different types of complex nonprofit structures. The article models the different complex nonprofit structures and provides an analysis of the historical and legal risk factors that underlie them.

Social Services, Faith-Based Organizations, and the Poor

Littlefield, M. B. — Mon, 08 Jun 2009 11:14:04 PDT

This project evaluates the degree to which faith-based organizations in Marion County Indiana offer programs that may impact low-income populations. Using a representative sample of 285 churches in Marion County, Indiana, this study investigates the relationship between race and social service provision and the potential impact on low-income communities. The findings of this study identify race as a significant factor in the type of social service delivery offered through faith organizations. although several studies have identified social service activities, few studies consider specific economic activities. although both african american and White faith organizations provide similar social service and educational activities, african american organizations are more likely to provide economic activities. These activities include employment services, job training, business development and assistance, and other economic activities that include credit repair, financial classes, and counseling.

Building Programmatic Capacity at the Grassroots Level: The Reactions of Local Nonprofit Organizations to Public Participation Geographic Information Systems

Bishop, S. W. — Mon, 08 Jun 2009 11:14:04 PDT

Diffusion and acceptance of geographic information systems (GIS) technology is not fully understood in public or private organizations, and even less is known about the role of GIS in the nonprofit sector. Using spatial analysis, this study examines the extent to which nine nonprofit organizations in Columbia, Missouri, meet the needs of their target populations. Findings revealed that nonprofit entities met from less than 1% to about 20% of client demand for services. Reactions to GIS analysis of program outputs was largely positive, with most of the nonprofits expressing an interest in using GIS technology to further communication and networking with other organizations. GIS is viewed by nonprofit administrators as a potentially useful tool in grant applications, strategic planning, program reporting, and advocacy activities, among others. Nonprofit administrators embrace GIS if they can use it to help with more immediate and practical concerns, such as improving client care and services.

How Permeable is the Nonprofit Sector? Linking Resources, Demand, and Government Provision to the Distribution of Organizations Across Nonprofit Mission-Based Fields

Stater, K. J. — Fri, 05 Jun 2009 10:56:44 PDT

A large vibrant nonprofit sector is often equated with a civically active and democratically inclined population. Yet, the degree to which different interests and needs are equally activated in a community’s nonprofit sector remains unclear. This article argues that more than the number of nonprofit organizations, the distribution of organizations across nonprofit fields can better represent the plurality of the nonprofit sector and its relationship to democracy. If the sector represents a permeable sphere for the activation of interests through formal voluntary action, one should see a more even nonprofit landscape in communities where there is greater population heterogeneity. Using national data on nonprofit organizations to investigate the determinants of nonprofit heterogeneity in U.S. counties, findings indicate that the nonprofit sector is semipermeable. Although greater population heterogeneity does lead to a more evenly distributed nonprofit sector, resource dependency and resource inequality complicate this relationship.

Beyond the Public Safety Net: The Role of Nonprofits in Addressing Material Hardship of Low-Income Households

Guo, B. — Fri, 08 May 2009 12:40:59 PDT

Research on material hardship mostly takes the public policy perspective, whereas the role of nonprofits in addressing household material hardship is largely ignored. This study uses data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation to examine what sources (government or nonprofit) households facing material hardships turn to for material assistance. Contrary to the common assumption that nonprofits play an increasing role in service provision after welfare reform, the data do not show a significant growth in service areas related to household material hardship. In the areas of comparison, government outweighs nonprofits in providing material assistance to low-income households, even without counting major public assistance programs. However, several findings show that nonprofits play a supplementary role in social service provision. Limitations and implications of the study are discussed.

Between Atomistic and Participatory Democracy: Leverage, Leadership, and Legitimacy in Israeli Civil Society

Oser, J. L. — Mon, 04 May 2009 13:30:18 PDT

Although a great deal of research on civic engagement has been based on individual survey responses, there is emerging consensus for the need to better understand the civic opportunities provided by a given organizational context. This article develops a conceptual model to examine the different reasons why organizations would choose to invest in a membership-recruiting strategy despite the significant investment this strategy requires. The case study analysis of interest group associations in Israel confirms the hypothesis of an increased use of membership as an organizational strategy for building policy influence. The organizations are shown to be more interested over time in developing political leverage for influencing policy-making processes. Membership is viewed primarily as a strategy for rhetorical or symbolic legitimation for one organization, but even this organization uses membership as a tool for gaining greater leverage resources. Yet the findings are not optimistic regarding the focus on developing civic leadership.

Exploring the Key Roles for Nonprofit Boards

Brown, W. A., Guo, C. — Thu, 30 Apr 2009 11:36:03 PDT

This research note explores roles for nonprofit boards as described by 121 community foundation executives. Through content analysis, a synthesized list of 13 different roles were identified. The study considered institutional and organizational attributes such as environmental uncertainty and organizational complexity to explore the contingencies under which certain board roles become more prevalent. The roles were also matched to existing governance theories. The list not only reflects activities recognized by different theoretical models but also suggests conflicts in the way strategy is conceptualized and articulated as a governance task.

Identifying Competencies of Volunteer Board Members of Community Sports Clubs

Balduck, A.-L., Rossem, A. V., Buelens, M. — Thu, 30 Apr 2009 11:36:02 PDT

This study contributes to the emerging empirical studies on roles and responsibilities of boards in nonprofit organizations by identifying competencies of volunteer board members. We identified how two types of constituents—volunteer board members and sports members—perceived competencies of volunteer board members in community sports clubs. We used the repertory grid technique to draw cognitive maps and to reveal the perceived reality of these constituents. Our results suggest that constituents within a group share similar perceptions of competencies of outstanding performing board members, whereas they agree less on perceptions of poor performing board members. This study reveals that cognitive (e.g., having a long-term vision, having professionalism), emotional intelligence (e.g., being reliable, being honest), and social intelligence (e.g., listening to others, being jovial/nice to be with) competencies are necessary to be perceived as an outstanding performing board member.

Did the Faith-Based Initiative Change Congregations

Chaves, M., Wineburg, B. — Tue, 21 Apr 2009 09:38:45 PDT

We use national surveys of congregations conducted in 1998 and 2006-2007 to assess whether or not the faith-based initiative increased congregations’ social service involvement, government funding, or collaborations with government or nonprofit organizations. More congregations indicated interest in social services and government funding in 2006-2007 than in 1998, but congregational involvement in social services, government funding, or collaborations has not increased since 1998. An in-depth local study of partnerships between congregations and nonprofit social service agencies leads to the same conclusion. The faith-based initiative did not change congregations’ behavior or expand their role in our social welfare system because it overlooked congregations’ longstanding role in community systems, and it was built on false assumptions about congregations’ latent capacity to expand that role and the extent to which they constitute a meaningful alternative to existing organizational networks of social support.

Factors Influencing Funder Loyalty to Microfinance Institutions

Gutierrez-Nieto, B., Serrano-Cinca, C. — Fri, 03 Apr 2009 11:11:41 PDT

This study unveils which factors affect decisions to fund Microfinance Institutions (MFIs). A quality-loyalty model is proposed to explain funder–MFI relationships. The role played by outreach and sustainability as perceived quality antecedents within a MFI has been studied. The model includes MFI transparency as an antecedent of trust. The proposed model is tested using a survey of 116 managers of MFI funding bodies. The analytical technique used to test the model is Partial Least Squares (PLS). The results suggest that both outreach and sustainability are important for MFI funders. The managerial implications for MFIs are discussed.

Trends in Hospital Ownership Type and Capacity: A Decomposition Analysis

David, G. — Fri, 13 Mar 2009 10:30:50 PDT

This article provides evidence of the growing similarity in capacity of for-profit and nonprofit hospitals in the United States. Between 1960 and 2000, the typical nonprofit hospital shrank from being 3 times as large as the average for-profit hospital to being merely one-third larger. Analysis of aggregate hospital data implies that the convergence in capacity is replicated by the growing similarity between nonprofit and for-profit hospitals in the number of admissions and average lengths of stay. An analysis of hospital-level data reveals that the convergence was driven primarily by entry, exit, and ownership switches, rather than expansions or downsizing of existing hospitals. Further research is needed to uncover the driving forces that led to this growing similarity between nonprofit and for-profit hospitals.

On the Classical Meaning of Philanthropia

Sulek, M. — Fri, 13 Mar 2009 10:30:50 PDT

The academic study of philanthropy presupposes a comprehensive definition that guides inquiry into what, exactly, philanthropy is and why it matters. at present, though, no such well-thought-out definition exists. Scholars tend to explore various facets of philanthropy, according to their particular academic interests, but without a comprehensive understanding of its full meaning. This article attempts to correct this lack of synoptic understanding by surveying prominent instances of usage and definitions of philanthrôpía in the classical greek era and synthesizing them into a overall framework for understanding its full classical meaning. In so doing, philanthrôpía is revealed to be a signal word, the meaning of which significantly evolved to reflect historically dominant philosophical and cultural trends in classical greek society. This article concludes the exploration of this subject begun in an article published in the previous issue of NVSQ, titled "On the Modern Meaning of Philanthropy."

On the Modern Meaning of Philanthropy

Sulek, M. — Wed, 11 Mar 2009 11:45:27 PDT

The academic study of philanthropy presupposes a comprehensive definition that guides inquiry into what, exactly, philanthropy is and why it matters. at present, though, no such well-thought-out definition exists. Scholars tend to explore various facets of philanthropy, according to their particular academic interests, but without a comprehensive understanding of its full meaning. This article attempts to correct this lack of synoptic understanding by surveying prominent instances of usage and definitions of philanthropy in the modern era and synthesizing them into a overall framework for understanding its full modern meaning. In so doing, philanthropy is revealed to be a signal word, the evolution in the meaning of which reflects historically dominant philosophical and cultural trends in modern Western society. The subject of this article is further explored in a forthcoming article, to be published in the next issue of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly , titled "On the Classical Meaning of Philanthrôpía ."

Training Volunteers to Run Information Technologies: A Case Study of Effectiveness at Community Food Pantries

Evans, S. H., Clarke, P. — Mon, 09 Mar 2009 11:10:26 PDT

Nonprofits are incorporating information technologies (ITs) into direct client services. Organizations may hesitate, however, to assign volunteers to operate these systems, for a variety of reasons. This article reports an experiment testing the capacity of two types of volunteers—"traditionals" (experienced in social services) and "beneficiaries" (from the ranks of the nonprofit’s clientele)—to use an IT for client services at two food pantries. The IT, Quick! Help for Meals, generates customized recipes and food-use tips about fresh vegetables. Results showed that both types of volunteers learned to operate the IT successfully. Traditionals’ use of the IT proved as effective as paid staff’s use in encouraging clients to consume more fresh vegetables. Beneficiaries’ use of the IT was not as effective in changing clients’ food use, compared to paid staff. Results of this case study should encourage nonprofits to experiment with assigning volunteers to operate ITs linked to client services.

Fundraising at Black Colleges During the 1960s and 1970s: The Case of Hampton Institute

Gasman, M., Drezner, N. — Mon, 09 Mar 2009 11:10:25 PDT

The purpose of this article is to examine the fundraising approaches and challenges of the Hampton Institute during the 1960s and 1970s—a time of racial turmoil and great change throughout the country. This turmoil, combined with a push for integration within the larger Black community and among White liberals, made for an uncertain fundraising environment. In addition, this article explores Hampton Institute’s decision to withdraw from the United Negro College Fund, a fundraising organization for private Black colleges, in 1968 and the impact of this action on Hampton’s ability to raise necessary funds.

The Quran and Poverty Alleviation: A Theoretical Model for Charity-Based Islamic Microfinance Institutions

Kaleem, A., Ahmed, S. — Tue, 03 Mar 2009 09:36:07 PST

The Quran prohibits interest and encourages trade and charity as alternates. This article seeks guidance from the verses of the Quran and develops a theoretical model of charity-based Islamic microfinance institutions (MFIs), which can be used as an alternative approach to reduce poverty. The article argues that charity-based Islamic MFIs will be financially and socially sustainable as these are to be based on the concepts of brotherhood, local philanthropy, and volunteer services. Charity-based Islamic MFIs will provide money for consumption as well as production purposes and, thus, can broadly target the economic and social needs of the poorest of the poor. They can help minimize indebtedness and reduce unequal distribution of wealth in society.

The Diffusion of State-Level Nonprofit Program Innovation: The T.E.A.C.H. Early Childhood Project

Kerlin, J. A. — Fri, 27 Feb 2009 10:39:49 PST

This article examines the diffusion of a state-level nonprofit program to other states across the United States. Current literature on innovation diffusion largely overlooks the diffusion of nonprofit program innovation. Although several streams of related diffusion research have considered organizational change and government policy transfer, they miss organizational and contextual factors particularly important for nonprofits. This study considers organizational and environmental factors in the transfer of state-level nonprofit program innovation using in-depth interviews with 74 policy actors to examine the spread of the T.E.A.C.H. Early Childhood Project to nonprofits in four states. It identifies similarities and differences between nonprofit program and government policy diffusion and proposes a modified framework for state-level nonprofit program diffusion that consists of multiple stages and participant roles.

The Accountability Movement: What's Wrong With This Theory of Change?

Carman, J. G. — Tue, 27 Jan 2009 12:28:20 PST

In the field of program evaluation, one of the first things evaluators often do to evaluate a program is to identify the "theory of change" behind the program and create a "logic model" to articulate why the program is expected to work. This allows evaluators to make an assessment about the expectations and feasibility of the program, as well as assess program implementation. In this article, the author uses the theory of change approach to evaluation and creates a logic model for the "accountability movement" or the tendency for funders to require nonprofit organizations to conduct evaluations and report performance information. The model is tested with empirical data, finding that the theory behind the accountability movement suffers from four design and implementation flaws wellknown to evaluators: (a) unstandardized treatment, (b) confusion among targets, (c) coverage, and (d) intensity issues. The article concludes by offering insights and recommendations for improving accountability practices.

Framing Third-Sector Contributions to Service Provision: The Case of the Holy Cross Dispute

Never, B. — Fri, 23 Jan 2009 10:41:55 PST

Third-sector organizations provide essential services, but not all types of organizations operate equally well given different intensities of public problems. This article considers the need to create three-dimensional maps of the sector matching populations of service providers with the intensities of public problems where they operate. It does so by providing a framework for understanding third-sector organizational service provision. It is illustrated by following a case of essential service provision in the face of state failure. It concludes by highlighting the utility of three-dimensional maps for policy makers.

Why Not Partner With Local Government? Nonprofit Managerial Perceptions of Collaborative Disadvantage

Gazley, B. — Tue, 23 Dec 2008 08:59:32 PST

Service delivery partnerships with local government offer both opportunities and challenges for nonprofit agencies, but the normative and institutionalist tendencies of the collaboration literature tend to downplay the rationales for avoiding partnerships and the influence of managerial characteristics on the decision to collaborate. Nonprofit executive directors across the state of Georgia were asked about factors that might inhibit them from collaborating with local government agencies. Principal components analysis created four dependent variables from these answers, which were regressed on various respondent, organizational, and community characteristics. The resulting analysis finds that managerial attitudes about collaboration are not monolithic: They reflect underlying political and social dynamics that should be understood as distinct constructs, linked to experience and personal background. The findings suggest that future research should specify the exact nature of collaborative barriers, examine the individual backgrounds of those charged with collaborative responsibility, and integrate theories of organizational and human behavior.

Strategic Responses by a Nonprofit When a Donor Becomes Tainted

Dunn, P. — Tue, 23 Dec 2008 08:59:33 PST

What should a not-for-profit do, when a donor, whom the nonprofit has publicly honored by naming a building, program or activity after the benefactor, subsequently becomes tainted because of a scandal? This paper outlines a typology of donors and donations, and using stakeholder theory and resource dependency identifies three external pressures (value incongruence, coalescence and visibility) and two constraints (economic need and organizational commitment) that would entice a NFP to adopt any one of three strategies: return the money and remove the public acknowledgement; keep the money but remove the acknowledgement; or keep the money and continue to honor the donor.

Influences on the Architecture of Human Resource Management in Nonprofit Organizations: An Analytical Framework

Ridder, H.-G., McCandless, A. — Fri, 19 Dec 2008 13:30:09 PST

Human resource management (HRM) plays an important role in providing better management for nonprofit organizations (NPOs). Yet little is known about what influences their human resource practices. After discussing how the strategic and humanresource-based theoretical approaches are appropriate for analyzing HRM in NPOs, the authors explore the current nonprofit literature to identify the specific characteristics of strategic orientations and human resources in NPOs. As a result, the authors propose an analytical framework that is differentiated into four HRM types. This framework enables a better understanding of the relationship between the specific characteristics of NPOs and the architecture of HRM.

Neoliberal Restructuring, Activism/Participation, and Social Unionism in the Nonprofit Social Services

Baines, D. — Fri, 19 Dec 2008 13:30:09 PST

During the era of neoliberalism, the nonprofit services sector has simultaneously been a site of (a) promarket restructuring and collective and individual resistance and (b) alternative forms of service delivery. Drawing on data collected as part of an ethnographic study in the Canadian nonprofit social services sector, this article explores the impacts of some of restructuring on professional, quasi-professional, and managerial employees in eight unionized, nonprofit social services. The data show that the adoption of social unionism has permitted some nonprofit social service workers to initiate new processes through which to have a voice in far-reaching social issues, sometimes in coalition with management and/or clients. The findings of this study point to the irrepressibility of the participatory spirit and its capacity to seek new forms and practices despite the stretched and restructured conditions of today’s nonprofit social services sector.

Navigating Institutional Pressure in State-Socialist and Democratic Regimes: The Case of Movement Brontosaurus

Carmin, J., Jehlicka, P. — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 10:18:42 PST

Using the case of Movement Brontosaurus, a Czech organization founded in state socialist times, this article investigates how civic associations and nongovernmental organizations seeking to promote alternatives to the status quo respond to institutional pressures in different political and social contexts. The case shows that under state socialism, Brontosaurus appeared to conform to state mandates and societal expectations. However, its formal structure was decoupled from many activities to obscure its oppositional intent.After the transition to democracy, the organization was only able to maintain its place in society after it aligned its structure and practices with each other and openly expressed its alternative agenda. The findings demonstrate how social change and alternative lifestyle organizations vary their responses to institutional pressure in ways that enable them to realize their values and pursue their missions while accounting for the political and social contexts in which they are embedded.

Cause-Related Marketing in the Retail and Finance Sectors: An Exploratory Study of the Determinants of Cause Selection and Nonprofit Alliances

Liston-Heyes, C., Liu, G. — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 10:18:42 PST

Firms devote increasing funds and resources to causerelated marketing (CRM). This report seeks to uncover some of the factors that explain how firms choose between competing social causes in the development of their CRM strategy. The behavior of firms traded on the London Stock Exchange is analyzed, by highlighting regularities and patterns in CRM activities. The rationales for the observed patterns are investigated through semistructured interviews with managers employed by UKbased nonprofit organizations, financial services, and retail firms. The authors identify, among other things, differences in the nature of the "selected" social causes, the length and geographical scope of the social campaigns, and the (CRM) strategies used to implement them. It is argued that these variations may reflect differences in the organizational legitimacy pressures experienced by firms in the retail and financial services sectors.

I Quit, Therefore I Am? Volunteer Turnover and the Politics of Self-Actualization

Hustinx, L. — Tue, 16 Dec 2008 14:25:10 PST

This study considers the thesis that volunteering is gaining a fundamentally new quality as a result of broader social and cultural transformations. Whereas existing research has focused on the changing nature of volunteering, this study deals with the decision to quit volunteering and examines whether it may be considered part of the "politics of self-actualization," that is, the more active and individualized monitoring of life. Former styles of volunteering and reasons for quitting were examined in a group of 99 ex-volunteers of the Red Cross in Flanders, Belgium, and volunteering habits were compared with a sample of 652 volunteers. Ex-volunteers did not systematically differ from the sample of volunteers with regard to their social background profile, volunteering behavior, and strength of organizational attachment. Furthermore, the decision to quit more likely reflected the routine nature of everyday practices than an autonomous and self-conscious life design.

Who Are Volunteers in Japan?

Taniguchi, H. — Fri, 14 Nov 2008 09:27:47 PST

Although Japan has a lower level of volunteering than many other countries, recent studies show slow but steady changes in its voluntary sector. Motivated by the scarcity of generalizable studies on volunteering among Japanese, the author examines the effects of demographic, socioeconomic, and social capital variables on the number of hours volunteered in Japan using data from the 2002 Japanese General Social Survey. Findings show that although demographic, socioeconomic, and social capital variables all help explain the level of volunteering, social capital variables appear to be stronger predictors than the other two types of variables. Religiosity is one of the most significant facilitators of volunteering, even though the large majority of Japanese do not practice organized religion. Frequent face-to-face contact with friends also increases volunteering hours. Most interestingly, individuals who interact more with foreigners volunteer more hours.

How Do Religions Differ in Their Impact on Individuals' Social Capital? The Case of South Korea

Jeong, H. O. — Tue, 21 Oct 2008 17:17:59 PDT

This article assesses the extent to which three religious communities in South Korea (Protestantism, Catholicism, and Buddhism) differ in their influence on individuals’ civic engagement and interpersonal trust—two components of social capital. Based on South Korea’s unique context, the author makes significant modifications to Anheier and Salamon’s ideas about religion. The author examines their four dimensions of the religions: an emphasis on charity and philanthropy, modularity, institutionalization, and autonomy. Regression analysis using data from the 1999-2002 World Values shows that Christianity increases individuals’ civic engagement, while Buddhism does not have an impact on civic engagement. With respect to trust, neither religious affiliation influences individuals’ interpersonal trust.